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1 large proprietor
Экономика: крупный владелец -
2 large proprietor
English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > large proprietor
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3 proprietor
nсобственник, владелец
- copyright proprietor
- individual proprietor
- joint proprietor
- landed proprietor
- large proprietor
- loan proprietor
- part proprietor
- petty proprietor
- registered proprietor
- sole proprietor
- working proprietor
- proprietor of a business
- proprietor of cargo
- proprietor of a firm
- proprietor of an enterprise
- proprietor of goods
- proprietor of a patent
- proprietor of a trademarkEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > proprietor
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4 крупный владелец
Economy: large proprietor -
5 suuromanik
прил.общ. крупный владелец, крупный собственник (англ.: large proprietor // нем.: GroЯbesitzer) -
6 крупный собственник
adjgener. (àíãë.: large proprietor // íåì.: Großbesitzer) suuromanikРусско-эстонский универсальный словарь > крупный собственник
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7 patron
patron [patʀɔ̃]1. masculine noun• le patron est là ? is the boss in?• (taille) demi-patron/patron/grand patron small/medium/large (size)2. compounds► patron voyou ( = entreprise) crooked company (inf) ; ( = chef d'entreprise) crooked company boss (inf)* * *
1.
- onne patʀɔ̃, ɔn nom masculin, féminin (directeur, gérant) manager, boss (colloq); ( propriétaire) owner, boss (colloq)
2.
nom masculin1) ( en couture) pattern2) ( taille) large•Phrasal Verbs:* * *patʀɔ̃, ɔn patron, -ne1. nm/f1) (= chef) boss, manager (manageress)le grand patron de... — the big boss of...
2) (= propriétaire) owner, proprietor (proprietress)3) (= employeur) employer4) MÉDECINE senior consultantpatron de thèse UNIVERSITÉ — supervisor (of postgraduate thesis)
5) RELIGION patron saint2. nmCOUTURE pattern* * *A nm,f1 Comm, Entr (directeur, gérant) manager, boss○; ( propriétaire) owner, boss○; ( artisan) être son propre patron to be one's own boss○; les patrons et les salariés management and workers;2 ○( responsable) boss○; chez lui, c'est lui le patron○ at home, he's the boss○; le patron○ du service the boss○ of the department; ⇒ grand;B nm1 Cout pattern;2 ( taille) large; grand patron extra-large;patron d'industrie captain of industry; patron de pêche skipper, master; patron de presse newspaper proprietor; patron de thèse○ thesis supervisor.I, patronne [patrɔ̃, ɔn] nom masculin, nom féminin1. [d'une entreprise - propriétaire] owner ; [ - gérant] manager ( feminine manageress) ; [ - directeur] employer ; [ - de café, d'auberge] owner, landlord ( feminine landlady)3. UNIVERSITÉpatron de thèse (doctoral) supervisor ou director4. [d'un service hospitalier] senior consultant————————nom masculin1. [d'une entreprise] bossII[patrɔ̃] nom masculin2. [vêtement]4. IMPRIMERIE [plaque] stencil (plate) -
8 sociedad
f.1 society.las hormigas viven en sociedad ants are social creaturesentrar o presentarse en sociedad to come out, to make one's debutalta sociedad high societynotas de sociedad society columnla sociedad civil civilian societysociedad de consumo consumer societyla sociedad de la información the information societyla sociedad del ocio the leisure society2 company (commerce) (empresa).sociedad de cartera portfolio companysociedad colectiva general partnershipsociedad comanditaria o en comandita general and limited partnershipsociedad industrial industrial societysociedad mercantil trading companysociedad (de responsabilidad) limitada private limited company* * *1 (gen) society2 COMERCIO company3 (asociación) society, association\presentarse en sociedad to make one's debutsociedad anónima limited company, US incorporated companysociedad comanditaria limited partnership, US silent partnershipsociedad de consumo consumer societySociedad de Jesús Society of Jesussociedad en comandita limited partnership, US silent partnershipsociedad limitada private limited company, US limited corporationsociedad mercantil company, trading companysociedad protectora de animales society for the prevention of cruelty to animals* * *noun f.1) society2) company•* * *SF1) (Sociol) society2) (=asociación) [gen] society, association; [oficial] bodysociedad de socorros mutuos — friendly society, provident society
3) (Com, Econ) (=empresa) [gen] company; [de socios] partnershipsociedad anónima — limited liability company, corporation (EEUU)
Sociedad Anónima — [en nombres de empresa] Limited, Incorporated (EEUU)
sociedad conjunta — (Com) joint venture
sociedad de beneficencia — friendly society, benefit association (EEUU)
sociedad instrumental, sociedad limitada — limited company, private limited company, corporation (EEUU)
4)alta o buena sociedad — high society
entrar en sociedad, presentarse en (la) sociedad — to come out, make one's debut
notas de sociedad — gossip column, society news column
5)* * *1) (Sociol) society2) (asociación, club) society3) (Der, Fin) company4) ( clase alta) (high) society* * *= membership, society, social fabric.Ex. The sharing of expertise through membership of a club of existing users can be valuable.Ex. Although the distinction between ' societies' and 'institutions' lies at the heart of the code.Ex. Information services should also be interwoven with the social fabric and firmly rooted in a commuity in order to be acceptable.----* constituir como sociedad = incorporate.* crónica de sociedad = gossip column.* cronista de sociedad = gossip columnist.* Cumbre Mundial sobre la Sociedad de la Información = World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).* de servicio a la sociedad = public-spirited.* editor de sociedad cultural = learned society publisher.* flor y nata de la sociedad, la = cream of society, the.* integrarse en la sociedad = integrate into + society.* la escoria de la sociedad = the gutter.* la sociedad en general = society at large.* margen de la sociedad = margin of society.* marginado de la sociedad = social outcast.* más granado de la sociedad, lo = cream of society, the.* parásito de la sociedad = parasite.* persona de la alta sociedad = socialite.* pilares de la sociedad, los = pillars of society, the.* prescrito por la sociedad = socially prescribed.* promovido por la sociedad = culture-led.* que afecta a toda la sociedad = culture-wide.* SCONUL (Sociedad de Bibliotecas Nacionales y Universitarias) = SCONUL (Society of College, National and University Libraries).* sociedad acomodada = affluent society.* sociedad adinerada = affluent society.* Sociedad Americana de Compositores, Autores y Editores = American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP).* Sociedad Australiana de Archiveros = Australian Society of Archivists (ASA).* sociedad avanzada = advanced society.* sociedad basada en el conocimiento = knowledge based society.* Sociedad Bibliográfica de America = Bibliographical Society of America.* sociedad burocratizada = bureaucratised society.* sociedad capitalista = capitalist society.* sociedad científica = scientific society, scholarly academy, scholarly society.* sociedad científico-cultural = learned society.* sociedad civil = civil society.* sociedad civilizada = civilised society.* sociedad consumista = consumerist society, consumer society, consumer society.* sociedad cultural = learned society.* Sociedad de Archiveros Americanos = Society of American Archivists.* Sociedad de Archiveros Holandeses = Society of Dutch Archivists.* sociedad de beneficiencia = friendly society, provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de consumo = consumer society, affluent society.* sociedad de gestión de derechos de autor = copyright collective, copyright collecting society, copyright collecting agency.* sociedad de inversiones = investment trust.* sociedad de inversión mobiliaria = investment trust.* sociedad de la información, la = information society, the.* sociedad del conocimiento = knowledge society.* sociedad de lectores = book club.* sociedad del ocio = leisure society, leisured society.* sociedad del papel = paper society.* sociedad de seguros mutuos = provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de socorros mutuos = friendly society, provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de tradición escrita = literate society.* sociedad editorial = publishing corporation.* sociedad histórica = historical society.* Sociedad Ilimitada = Unlimited.* sociedad inclusiva = inclusive society.* sociedad industrial = industrial society.* sociedad industrializada = industrialised society.* sociedad informada = learning society.* sociedad integradora = inclusive society.* sociedad intelectual = learned society.* sociedad laica = secular society.* sociedad materialista = materialistic society.* sociedad medieval = mediaeval society.* sociedad mercantilista = mercantile society.* sociedad moderna = modern society.* Sociedad para el Conocimiento Global = Global Knowledge Partnership.* sociedad pluralista = pluralistic society.* sociedad postindustrial = post-industrial society.* sociedad preindustrial = pre-industrial society.* sociedad privada = private society.* sociedad protectora de animales = RSPCA (Royal Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Animals), animal protection society.* sociedad religiosa = religious society.* sociedad secreta = secret society, secret brotherhood.* sociedad sin libros = bookless society.* sociedad sin papel, la = paperless society, the.* sociedad tecnológica = technological society.* sociedad trabajadora = working society.* toda la sociedad = society at large.* * *1) (Sociol) society2) (asociación, club) society3) (Der, Fin) company4) ( clase alta) (high) society* * *= membership, society, social fabric.Ex: The sharing of expertise through membership of a club of existing users can be valuable.
Ex: Although the distinction between ' societies' and 'institutions' lies at the heart of the code.Ex: Information services should also be interwoven with the social fabric and firmly rooted in a commuity in order to be acceptable.* constituir como sociedad = incorporate.* crónica de sociedad = gossip column.* cronista de sociedad = gossip columnist.* Cumbre Mundial sobre la Sociedad de la Información = World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).* de servicio a la sociedad = public-spirited.* editor de sociedad cultural = learned society publisher.* flor y nata de la sociedad, la = cream of society, the.* integrarse en la sociedad = integrate into + society.* la escoria de la sociedad = the gutter.* la sociedad en general = society at large.* margen de la sociedad = margin of society.* marginado de la sociedad = social outcast.* más granado de la sociedad, lo = cream of society, the.* parásito de la sociedad = parasite.* persona de la alta sociedad = socialite.* pilares de la sociedad, los = pillars of society, the.* prescrito por la sociedad = socially prescribed.* promovido por la sociedad = culture-led.* que afecta a toda la sociedad = culture-wide.* SCONUL (Sociedad de Bibliotecas Nacionales y Universitarias) = SCONUL (Society of College, National and University Libraries).* sociedad acomodada = affluent society.* sociedad adinerada = affluent society.* Sociedad Americana de Compositores, Autores y Editores = American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP).* Sociedad Australiana de Archiveros = Australian Society of Archivists (ASA).* sociedad avanzada = advanced society.* sociedad basada en el conocimiento = knowledge based society.* Sociedad Bibliográfica de America = Bibliographical Society of America.* sociedad burocratizada = bureaucratised society.* sociedad capitalista = capitalist society.* sociedad científica = scientific society, scholarly academy, scholarly society.* sociedad científico-cultural = learned society.* sociedad civil = civil society.* sociedad civilizada = civilised society.* sociedad consumista = consumerist society, consumer society, consumer society.* sociedad cultural = learned society.* Sociedad de Archiveros Americanos = Society of American Archivists.* Sociedad de Archiveros Holandeses = Society of Dutch Archivists.* sociedad de beneficiencia = friendly society, provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de consumo = consumer society, affluent society.* sociedad de gestión de derechos de autor = copyright collective, copyright collecting society, copyright collecting agency.* sociedad de inversiones = investment trust.* sociedad de inversión mobiliaria = investment trust.* sociedad de la información, la = information society, the.* sociedad del conocimiento = knowledge society.* sociedad de lectores = book club.* sociedad del ocio = leisure society, leisured society.* sociedad del papel = paper society.* sociedad de seguros mutuos = provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de socorros mutuos = friendly society, provident society, mutual benefit society.* sociedad de tradición escrita = literate society.* sociedad editorial = publishing corporation.* sociedad histórica = historical society.* Sociedad Ilimitada = Unlimited.* sociedad inclusiva = inclusive society.* sociedad industrial = industrial society.* sociedad industrializada = industrialised society.* sociedad informada = learning society.* sociedad integradora = inclusive society.* sociedad intelectual = learned society.* sociedad laica = secular society.* sociedad materialista = materialistic society.* sociedad medieval = mediaeval society.* sociedad mercantilista = mercantile society.* sociedad moderna = modern society.* Sociedad para el Conocimiento Global = Global Knowledge Partnership.* sociedad pluralista = pluralistic society.* sociedad postindustrial = post-industrial society.* sociedad preindustrial = pre-industrial society.* sociedad privada = private society.* sociedad protectora de animales = RSPCA (Royal Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Animals), animal protection society.* sociedad religiosa = religious society.* sociedad secreta = secret society, secret brotherhood.* sociedad sin libros = bookless society.* sociedad sin papel, la = paperless society, the.* sociedad tecnológica = technological society.* sociedad trabajadora = working society.* toda la sociedad = society at large.* * *A ( Sociol) societysociedad pluralista/democrática pluralistic/democratic societyel papel que cabe a la mujer en la sociedad the role of women in societyCompuestos:consumer societyprovident societyB (asociación, club) societyuna sociedad secreta a secret societysociedad deportiva sports clubCompuestos:Society of Jesus( Hist) League of NationsSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animalsformar una sociedad to set up o form a companyCompuestos:● sociedad comanditaria or en comanditalimited partnershiplisted company, quoted companyholding companyjoint ownership upon marriagemanagement companyinvestment companysecurities firmstate corporationfinance company o house( Esp) (que promueve) developer, development company; (que construye) construction company; (que administra) real estate ( AmE) o ( BrE) property management companyparent companytrading companyjoint venturesole proprietor, sole trader ( BrE)D (clase alta) society, high societypresentarse en sociedad to come out ( as a debutante)* * *
sociedad sustantivo femenino
1 (Sociol) society;
2 (asociación, club) society
3 (Der, Fin) company;
sociedad de responsabilidad limitada limited corporation ( in US), (private) limited company ( in UK);
sociedad inmobiliaria (Esp) ( que construye) construction company;
( que administra) real estate (AmE) o (BrE) property management company;
4 ( clase alta) (high) society
sociedad sustantivo femenino
1 society
sociedad industrial/medieval, industrial/medieval society
2 Fin company
sociedad anónima, public limited company
sociedad cooperativa, co-operative
sociedad limitada, limited company
2 (asociación) society
3 alta sociedad, (high) society
♦ Locuciones: presentarse en sociedad, to have one's coming out
sociedad civil, civil society
sociedad de consumo, consumer society
' sociedad' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
agruparse
- alta
- alto
- anónima
- anónimo
- apreciarse
- baile
- clasista
- consumo
- eco
- estratificación
- gratuidad
- limitada
- limitado
- marginar
- protector
- protectora
- reintegrar
- S.A.
- S.L.
- academia
- agrario
- capa
- concientizar
- construir
- corromper
- corrompido
- crónica
- desmoronarse
- ejido
- elitista
- engranaje
- escoria
- espejo
- estamento
- evolución
- evolucionado
- evolucionar
- jai
- justo
- modernizar
- ojo
- posición
- regir
- retrasado
- secretario
- situación
English:
affluent
- association
- cliquey
- club
- consumer society
- corp.
- corporation
- dissolve
- drop out
- dropout
- fabric
- golf club
- HMO
- incorporated
- limited
- Ltd
- member
- monogamous
- partnership
- PLC
- progress
- Rotary Club
- scum
- section
- socialite
- society
- whole
- building
- consumer
- cream
- dregs
- element
- finishing
- fringe
- gossip
- high
- incorporate
- joint
- parent
- reintegrate
- savings
- stock
* * *sociedad nf1. [de seres vivos] society;las hormigas viven en sociedad ants are social creaturesla sociedad civil civil society;sociedad de consumo consumer society;sociedad de la información information society;la sociedad del ocio the leisure society;sociedad plural plural society;sociedad postindustrial post-industrial society2. [mundo elegante] society;alta sociedad high society;notas de sociedad society column3. [asociación] societysociedad deportiva sports club;sociedad gastronómica dining club, gourmet club;la Sociedad de Jesús the Society of Jesus;sociedad literaria literary society;sociedad médica private health care company;Hist la Sociedad de Naciones the League of Nations;4. Com & Fin [empresa] companysociedad anónima Br public (limited) company, US incorporated company;sociedad de cartera holding (company);sociedad colectiva general partnership;sociedad cooperativa cooperative;sociedad industrial industrial society;sociedad de inversión investment company;sociedad de inversión de capital variable ICVC, investment company with variable capital;sociedad de inversión mobiliaria investment trust;sociedad limitada private limited company;sociedad mercantil trading corporation;sociedad mixta joint venture;sociedad de responsabilidad limitada private limited company* * *f society;alta sociedad high society;presentar en sociedad present in society* * *sociedad nf1) : society2) : company, enterprise3)sociedad anónima : incorporated company* * *sociedad n -
9 latifondista
latifondista s.m. e f. latifundist; (ricco proprietario terriero) large landowner, landed proprietor.* * *m.pl. -i, f.pl. -e [latifon'dista] sostantivo maschile e sostantivo femminile big landowner* * *latifondistam.pl. -i, f.pl. -e /latifon'dista/m. e f.big landowner. -
10 master
1. n хозяин, владелец; господинthe master of the house — глава семьи; хозяин дома
to play the master — хозяйничать, распоряжаться
I am not my own master — я не волен поступать, как хочу, я собой не распоряжаюсь
to be master of oneself — владеть собой, держать себя в руках
we will see which of us is master — посмотрим, кто из нас хозяин положения
after hard fighting, the defenders were still masters of the city — после тяжёлых боёв город оставался в руках его защитников
master of the house — хозяин, глава семьи
2. n учитель3. n глава колледжаthe master of the household — хозяин дома, глава семьи
4. n магистрGrand Master — великий магистр, гроссмейстер
5. n мастер, знаток своего дела, специалистhe is master of this subject — он глубоко знает этот предмет, он специалист по этому предмету
6. n квалифицированный рабочий; мастерmaster hand — мастер, специалист
7. n великий, знаменитый художник, мастерmaster gunner — старший инструктор по стрельбе; мастер стрельбы
8. n в названиях должностей9. n молодой барин, барчук; мастер, господинcomplete master of fence — настоящий мастер фехтования, искусный фехтовальщик
10. n шотл. старший сын титулованного лицаmaster index — главный индекс; старший индекс
11. n Христос12. n капитан, шкиперmaster mariner — капитан, шкипер
13. n ист. штурман14. n спец. модель; оригинал, образецmaster drawing — оригинал; эталонный чертеж
15. n первый оригиналfilm master — оригинал микрофильма; оригинал на плёнке
16. n руководство17. a главный, старшийmaster bedroom — спальня хозяев, господская спальня
18. a основной; сводный19. a контрольный20. v справляться, одолевать, подчинять себеto master the enemy — наносить поражение противнику, одерживать победу над противником
21. v преодолевать22. v овладевать23. v руководить, управлять24. v русск. как компонент сложных слов, соответствует компоненту -мачтовикСинонимический ряд:1. dominant (adj.) ascendant; dominant; outweighing; overbalancing; overbearing; overweighing; paramount; predominant; predominate; preponderant; prevalent; regnant; sovereign2. major (adj.) chief; excellent; leading; main; major; principal; supreme3. proficient (adj.) accomplished; adept; crack; crackerjack; deft; expert; masterful; masterly; practiced; proficient; skilled; skillful4. expert (noun) adept; artist; artiste; authority; champion; connoisseur; doyen; expert; genius; maestro; master-hand; maven; passed master; past master; pro; professional; proficient; sage; scholar; swell; virtuoso; whiz; wiz; wizard5. leader (noun) boss; captain; chief; chieftain; cock; commander; director; dominator; head; headman; hierarch; honcho; leader; lord; overlord; ruler; superintendent; supervisor6. lover (noun) boyfriend; fancy man; lover; man; paramour7. original (noun) archetype; original; prototype8. owner (noun) holder; owner; possessor; proprietor9. supreme being (noun) Christ; god; messiah; supreme being10. teacher (noun) educator; instructor; mentor; preceptor; teacher11. victor (noun) conqueror; defeater; subduer; subjugator; vanquisher; victor; winner12. conquer (verb) conquer; defeat; humble; overpower; rule; subdue; vanquish13. domesticate (verb) domesticate; domesticize; domiciliate; gentle; tame14. learn (verb) comprehend; control; dominate; gain mastery in; get; learn; pick up; study; understand15. overcome (verb) best; down; hurdle; lick; overcome; prevail; surmount; throw; triumph; worstАнтонимический ряд:inept; novice; resist; student; subject -
11 Coade, Eleanor
SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building[br]b. 24 June 1733 Exeter, Devon, Englandd. 18 November 1821 Camberwell, London, England[br]English proprietor of the Coade Factory, making artificial stone.[br]Born Elinor Coade, she never married but adopted, as was customary in business in the eighteenth century, the courtesy title of Mrs. Following the bankruptcy and death of her father, George Coade, in Exeter, Eleanor and her mother (also called Eleanor) moved to London and founded the works at Lambeth, South London, in 1769 that later became famous as the Coade factory. The factory was located at King's Arms Stairs, Narrow Wall. During the eighteenth century, several attempts had been made in other businesses to manufacture a durable, malleable artificial stone that would be acceptable to architects for decorative use. These substances were not very successful, but Coade stone was different. Although stories are legion about the secret formula supposedly used in this artificial stone, modern methods have established the exact formula.Coade stone was a stoneware ceramic material fired in a kiln. The body was remarkable in that it shrank only 8 per cent in drying and firing: this was achieved by using a combination of china clay, sand, crushed glass and grog (i.e. crushed and ground, previously fired stoneware). The Coade formula thus included a considerable proportion of material that, having been fired once already, was unshrinkable. Mrs Coade's name for the firm, Coade's Lithodipyra Terra-Cotta or Artificial Stone Manufactory (where "Lithodipyra" is a term derived from three Greek words meaning "stone", "twice" and "fire"), made reference to the custom of including such material (such as in Josiah Wedgwood's basalt and jasper ware). The especially low rate of shrinkage rendered the material ideal for making extra-life-size statuary, and large architectural, decorative features to be incorporated into stone buildings.Coade stone was widely used for such purposes by leading architects in Britain and Ireland from the 1770s until the 1830s, including Robert Adam, Sir Charles Barry, Sir William Chambers, Sir John Soane, John Nash and James Wyatt. Some architects introduced the material abroad, as far as, for example, Charles Bulfinch's United States Bank in Boston, Massachusetts, and Charles Cameron's redecoration for the Empress Catherine of the great palace Tsarkoe Selo (now Pushkin), near St Petersburg. The material so resembles stone that it is often mistaken for it, but it is so hard and resistant to weather that it retains sharpness of detail much longer than the natural substance. The many famous British buildings where Coade stone was used include the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, Carlton House and the Sir John Soane Museum (all of which are located in London), St George's Chapel at Windsor, Alnwick Castle in Northumberland, and Culzean Castle in Ayrshire, Scotland.Apart from the qualities of the material, the Coade firm established a high reputation for the equally fine quality of its classical statuary. Mrs Coade employed excellent craftsmen such as the sculptor John Bacon (1740–99), whose work was mass-produced by the use of moulds. One famous example which was widely reproduced was the female caryatid from the south porch of the Erechtheion on the acropolis of Athens. A drawing of this had appeared in the second edition of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens in 1789, and many copies were made from the original Coade model; Soane used them more than once, for example on the Bank of England and his own houses in London.Eleanor Coade was a remarkable woman, and was important and influential on the neo-classical scene. She had close and amicable relations with leading architects of the day, notably Robert Adam and James Wyatt. The Coade factory was enlarged and altered over the years, but the site was finally cleared during 1949–50 in preparation for the establishment of the 1951 Festival of Britain.[br]Further ReadingA.Kelly, 1990, Mrs Coade's Stone, pub. in conjunction with the Georgian Group (an interesting, carefully written history; includes a detailed appendix on architects who used Coade stone and buildings where surviving work may be seen).DY -
12 Crookes, Sir William
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 17 June 1832 London, Englandd. 4 April 1919 London, England[br]English chemist and physicist who carried out studies of electrical discharges and cathode rays in rarefied gases, leading to the development of the cathode ray tube; discoverer of the element thallium and the principle of the Crookes radiometer.[br]Crookes entered the Royal College of Chemistry at the age of 15, and from 1850 to 1854 held the appointment of Assistant at the college. In 1854 he became Superintendent of the Meteorological Department at the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. He moved to a post at the College of Science in Chester the following year. Soon after this he inherited a large fortune and set up his own private laboratory in London. There he studied the nature of electrical discharges in gases at low pressure and discovered the dark space (later named after him) that surrounds the negative electrode, or cathode. He also established that the rays produced in the process (subsequently shown by J.J.Thompson to be a stream of electrons) not only travelled in straight lines, but were also capable of producing heat and/or light upon impact with suitable anode materials. Using a variety of new methods to investigate these "cathode" rays, he applied them to the spectral analysis of compounds of selenium and, as a result, in 1861 he discovered the element thallium, finally establishing its atomic weight in 1873. Following his discovery of thallium, he became involved in two main lines of research: the properties of rarified gases, and the investigation of the elements of the "rare earths". It was also during these experiments that he discovered the principle of the Crookes radiometer, a device in which light is converted into rotational motion and which used to be found frequently in the shop windows of English opticians. Also among the fruits of this work were the Crookes tubes and the development of spectacle lenses with differential ranges of radiational absorption. In the 1870s he became interested in spiritualism and acquired a reputation for his studies of psychic phenomena, but at the turn of the century he returned to traditional scientific investigations. In 1892 he wrote about the possibility of wireless telegraphy. His work in the field of radioactivity led to the invention of the spinthariscope, an early type of detector of alpha particles. In 1900 he undertook investigations into uranium which led to the study of scintillation, an important tool in the study of radioactivity.While the theoretical basis of his work has not stood the test of time, his material discoveries, observations and investigations of new facts formed a basis on which others such as J.J. Thomson were to develop subatomic theory. His later involvement in the investigation of spiritualism led to much criticism, but could be justified on the basis of a belief in the duty to investigate all phenomena.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1897. Order of Merit 1910. FRS 1863. President, Royal Society 1913–15. Honorary LLD Birmingham. Honorary DSc Oxon, Cambridge, Sheffield, Durham, Ireland and Cape of Good Hope.Bibliography1874, On Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radiation.1874, "Researches in the phenomenon of spiritualism", Society of Metaphysics; reprinted in facsimile, 1986.For many years he was also Proprietor and Editor of Chemical News.Further ReadingE.E.Fournier D'Albe, 1923, Life of Sir William Crookes. Who Was Who II, 1916–28, London: A. \& C. Black. T.I.Williams, 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. See also Braun, Karl Ferdinand.KF / MG -
13 Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 1863 Thury-Harcourt, Caen, Franced. 9 May 1914 Antibes, France[br]French metallurigst, inventor of the process of aluminium reduction by electrolysis.[br]Paul Héroult, the son of a tanner, at the age of 16, while still at school in Caen, read Deville's book on aluminium and became obsessed with the idea of developing a cheap way of producing this metal. After his family moved to Gentillysur-Bièvre he studied at the Ecole Sainte-Barbe in Paris and then returned to Caen to work in the laboratory of his father's tannery. His first patent, filed in February and granted on 23 April 1886, described an invention almost identical to that of C.M. Hall: "the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite into which the current is introduced through suitable electrodes. The cryolite is not consumed." Early in 1887 Héroult attempted to obtain the support of Alfred Rangod Pechiney, the proprietor of the works at Salindres where Deville's process for making sodium-reduced aluminium was still being operated. Pechiney persuaded Héroult to modify his electrolytic process by using a cathode of molten copper, thus making it possible produce aluminium bronze rather than pure aluminium. Héroult then approached the Swiss firm J.G.Nehe Söhne, ironmasters, whose works at the Falls of Schaffhausen obtained power from the Rhine. They were looking for a new metallurgical process requiring large quantities of cheap hydroelectric power and Héroult's process seemed suitable. In 1887 they established the Société Metallurgique Suisse to test Héroult's process. Héroult became Technical Director and went to the USA to defend his patents against those of Hall. During his absence the Schaffhausen trials were successfully completed, and on 18 November 1888 the Société Metallurgique combined with the German AEG group, Oerlikon and Escher Wyss, to establish the Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen. In the early electrolytic baths it was occasionally found that arcs between the bath surface and electrode could develop if the electrodes were inadvertently raised. From this observation, Héroult and M.Killiani developed the electric arc furnace. In this, arcs were intentionally formed between the surface of the charge and several electrodes, each connected to a different pole of the AC supply. This furnace, the prototype of the modern electric steel furnace, was first used for the direct reduction of iron ore at La Praz in 1903. This work was undertaken for the Canadian Government, for whom Héroult subsequently designed a 5,000-amp single-phase furnace which was installed and tested at Sault-Sainte-Marie in Ontario and successfully used for smelting magnetite ore.[br]Further ReadingAluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen, 1938, The History of the Aluminium-Industrie-Aktien-Gesellschaft Neuhausen 1888–1938, 2 vols, Neuhausen.C.J.Gignoux, Histoire d'une entreprise française. "The Hall-Héroult affair", 1961, Metal Bulletin (14 April):1–4.ASDBiographical history of technology > Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint
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